Research Team and Affiliate Organisations iii

About This Report v

Summary vii

Figures and Tables xix

PART 1

Circular Economy Foundations and Context 1

CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Building a Circular Economy for Solar Photovoltaics in Australia 2

  The Emerging Global Circular Economy 4

  Economic Opportunity 7

  Material Recovery 8

  Objectives of This Report 9

  Chapter 1 References 9

CHAPTER 2

Solar Photovoltaic Deployment and Future Projections in Australia 12

  The State of Solar Deployment in Australia 14

  Volume Forecasts: How Much Photovoltaic Waste Will Australia Have to Deal With and When? 16

  Waste Diversion Potential 17

  Conclusion 19

  Chapter 2 References 19

CHAPTER 3

The State of the Solar Photovoltaic Circular Economy 22

  Opportunities for Circularity 24

  Circularity for Photovoltaic Installations: Certification Case Study 26

  Global Examples of Circular Economies in the Photovoltaics Sector 26

  Conclusion 28

  Chapter 3 References 29

PART 2

Technical and Scientific Developments 31

CHAPTER 4

The Solar Photovoltaic Supply Chain: Manufacturing and Distribution 32

  Understanding the Supply Chain 33

  Global Production Capacity: Key Figures and Trends 34

  Sources of Photovoltaic Materials 37

  Projected Availability of Metals for Photovoltaics 38

  End-of-Life Determination Methods 39

  End-of-Life Feedstock Material Flows 42

  Loss Quantification 42

  Conclusion 44

  Chapter 4 References 45

CHAPTER 5

Closing the Loop: Material Recovery for a Photovoltaic Circular Economy 48

  Overview of Photovoltaic Recycling Processes in Australia 50

  Material Recovery Breakthroughs 51

  Emerging Recycling Technologies 52

  Polymer Synthesis: Challenges for Use in Photovoltaic Panels 53

  Depolymerisation of Polyethylene Terephthalate and the Recovery and Purification of Metals 54

  Silicon Recovery and Purification 54

  Fluoropolymer Backsheet Treatment and Recovery 55

  Silver Recovery from End-of-Life Solar Panels 57

  Automation Potential in Solar Panel Recycling 60

  Material Complexity and Recovery Challenges 62

  Analysis of the Pros and Cons of Recovery Methods 63

  Chapter 5 References 65

CHAPTER 6

Logistics and Collection Systems for End-of-Life Solar Panels 70

  Photovoltaic Collection and Assessment 72

  Transport: The Carbon Footprint of Supply Chains from China to Australia 74

  Infrastructure 76

  Collection Network Requirements 78

  Technology Deployment Needs 79

  Regional Capacity Planning 80

  Investment Requirements 81

  Material Composition and Value Streams 82

  Conclusion 84

  Chapter 6 References 84

CHAPTER 7

Applications and Value of Recovered Materials from Solar Panels 88

  Applications for Recovered Silicon 89

  Applications for Recovered Silver 91

  Applications for Recovered Copper 92

  Applications for Recovered Aluminium 95

  Conclusion 97

  Chapter 7 References 98

PART 3

Policy, Infrastructure, Technology and Implementation 101

CHAPTER 8

Holistic Approaches: Social, Environmental and Business Considerations for a Photovoltaic Circular Economy 102

  Social Considerations 103

  Environmental Considerations 111

  Commercial Considerations: Business-Model Development 116

  Conclusion 122

  Chapter 8 References 123

CHAPTER 9

A Techno-Economic Perspective on End-of-Life Photovoltaic Recycling 128

  National Installation Trends and Waste Projection Basis 130

  Baseline Techno-Economic Assessment for a 2,500-Tonne per Year Photovoltaic Recycling Facility 131

  Case Study Focus: Victoria and Queensland 134

  Comparative Assessment, Policy Implications and Final Recommendations 137

  Final Recommendations for a National Deployment Strategy 139

  Conclusion 140

  Chapter 9 References 140

CHAPTER 10

Policy Framework: Gaps, Opportunities and Recommendations 142

  The Role of Regulation 143

  Examples of Global Best Practices in Circular Economy Policies 146

  Regulation in the Australian Context 153

  Future Policy Priorities for Australia’s Circular Economy 154

  Conclusion 169

  Chapter 10 References 170

CHAPTER 11

Implementation Roadmap: Pathways to a Circular Solar Economy 178

  Planning Horizons for Implementing a Solar Photovoltaic Circular Economy 181

  Research and Development 182

  Policy and Regulatory Reform 182

  Market Scaling 184

  Logistics 185

  Applications 186

  Engagement 187

  Cross-Cutting Issues 188

  Conclusion 190

  Chapter 11 References 190

APPENDIXES

A. Modelling Assumptions Used for the Techno-Economic Assessments 194

B. Methodology Used for the Techno-Economic Assessment 200

C. Operating Expenditure Breakdown Used in the Techno-Economic Assessment 204

D. Calculations Used in the Techno-Economic Assessment Scenarios 208

E. Photovoltaic Module Capacity to Mass Conversion Table for Recycling Applications 214

Abbreviations 217

Glossary 219

About the Authors 221